Financial Preparation

• Determine your total investment budget (property + transaction costs + reserves)
• Establish currency strategy (USD is widely used in property transactions)
• Research USD/ZWL exchange trends if dealing with local currency components
• Set up international wire transfer capabilities with your home bank
• Consider establishing a USD account with a Zimbabwean bank
• Evaluate tax implications in both Zimbabwe and your home country
• Arrange financing if needed (typically requires significant cash component)

Market Research

• Identify target cities based on investment goals (capital growth vs. rental yield)
• Research neighborhood-specific price trends and rental yields
• Join online forums for Zimbabwe property investors
• Subscribe to local property reports (Estate Agents Council of Zimbabwe, Property.co.zw)
• Analyze infrastructure projects and economic zones
• Research tenant demographics and rental demand in target areas
• Plan a preliminary market visit to evaluate areas firsthand

Professional Network Development

• Connect with legal advisors specializing in Zimbabwe property and foreign investment
• Identify reputable estate agents with experience in investor purchases
• Research property management companies in your target market
• Establish contact with local banking institutions that serve foreign clients
• Find a Zimbabwean tax accountant familiar with foreign investor concerns
• Connect with surveyors and building inspectors for property evaluations
• Consider local partners for joint venture opportunities if applicable

Expert Tip: Zimbabwe’s property market is highly relationship-driven. Plan to spend at least 1-2 weeks on the ground meeting potential partners, advisors, and agents before making investment decisions. The dry season (May-October) is ideal for property viewing trips, as roads are more accessible and properties can be thoroughly inspected. December-January should be avoided due to the holiday season and rainy conditions that may obscure property issues.

Recent Regulatory Change: The Zimbabwe Investment and Development Agency Act of 2020 has streamlined business registration for foreign investors, creating a one-stop shop for company formation, investment approvals, and licensing. This process now takes approximately 5-10 business days compared to the previous timeframe of 30+ days. Foreign investors are still required to provide more extensive documentation than local entities, including company profiles, director information, and investment plans.

Banking Setup

• Banking Options:
  • Local commercial banks: CBZ, Stanbic, Standard Chartered, First Capital offer services to foreign investors
  • International banks with local presence: Standard Bank, Standard Chartered provide regional expertise
  • Private banking services: Available for higher net worth individuals through select institutions
  • Multi-currency accounts: USD and ZWL accounts may be required for different transaction types
• Typical Requirements:
  • Passport and identification documentation
  • Proof of address (in home country)
  • Investment permits or business registration
  • Source of funds documentation
  • Reference letters from existing banks
  • In-person account opening typically required
• Alternative Approach: Many foreign investors complete property transactions through attorneys’ trust accounts, particularly for initial purchases, and establish banking relationships during subsequent visits. Escrow services from reputable law firms provide transaction security.

Financing Options

While cash purchases are common among foreign investors, financing options include:

1. Local Mortgage Financing:
   • Availability: Limited for foreign nationals without established local history
   • Deposit Requirements: Typically 40-60% for foreign buyers
   • Interest Rates: Significantly higher than North American rates (10-20% for USD-denominated loans)
   • Term Lengths: Typically shorter than international standards (5-15 years)
   • Documentation: Extensive, including income verification from both Zimbabwe and home country sources
2. Seller Financing:
   • Increasingly common option for foreign buyers
   • Typically structured as 30-50% down payment with 2-5 year terms
   • Security through property liens or collateral arrangements
   • Requires careful legal structuring and local advice
3. Home Country Financing:
   • Refinancing existing properties in North America
   • Home equity lines of credit (HELOCs)
   • Personal loans or portfolio-backed credit lines
   • Often more accessible and affordable than local financing

Currency Management

Zimbabwe’s multi-currency environment requires strategic currency management:

• Currency Considerations:
  • Property transactions typically conducted in USD
  • Certain local costs may require Zimbabwe dollars (ZWL)
  • Maintain awareness of exchange control regulations
  • Plan for potential currency fluctuations in operating expenses
• Currency Services:
  • International money transfer services like Wise have limited functionality for Zimbabwe
  • Traditional bank transfers remain most reliable for property transactions
  • Local currency exchange for operational needs through banking partners
• Income Repatriation:
  • Foreign investors can repatriate rental income subject to tax clearance
  • Capital gains from property sales can be repatriated with proper documentation
  • Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe approval may be required for larger transfers
  • Maintain detailed records for both Zimbabwean and home country tax compliance

Currency management is a critical consideration for Zimbabwe investments. Working with banks that have experience serving foreign investors and establishing relationships with reputable currency exchange providers can significantly smooth financial operations. The USD’s widespread use in the property sector provides relative stability compared to other sectors of the economy.

Property Search Resources

• Online Property Portals:
  • Property.co.zw – Zimbabwe’s largest property portal
  • Classifieds.co.zw – Comprehensive listings across Zimbabwe
  • ZimPropertySales – Growing platform with diverse listings
  • Social media groups (Facebook marketplace and property groups)
• Estate Agents:
  • Established agencies: Pam Golding Zimbabwe, Knight Frank Zimbabwe, Seeff Properties Zimbabwe
  • Local independent agencies with specific market expertise
  • Investment-focused agents specializing in foreign buyer assistance
  • Note: Unlike North America, agent licensing is less standardized; verify credentials through the Estate Agents Council of Zimbabwe
• Property Auctions:
  • Potential for below-market purchases (requires additional due diligence)
  • Typically advertised in local newspapers and through auction houses
  • Often requires full payment shortly after auction
• Buying Agents/Property Consultants:
  • Represents buyer rather than seller (recommended for foreign investors)
  • Access to off-market properties and developer inventory
  • Market knowledge and negotiation expertise
  • Typically charge 3-5% of purchase price or fixed consultancy fee

Property Viewing Trip Planning

For overseas investors, an efficient property viewing trip is essential:

1. Pre-Trip Research:
   • Identify 10-15 potential properties before arrival
   • Schedule viewings in advance (inventory moves quickly in desirable areas)
   • Research neighborhoods thoroughly online
   • Arrange meetings with legal advisors, agents, and banking contacts
2. Trip Logistics:
   • Plan at least 7-10 days in country
   • Arrange reliable local transportation
   • Schedule viewings in geographical clusters
   • Allow time for neighborhood exploration and local consultation
3. During Viewings:
   • Take detailed photos and videos (including surroundings)
   • Ask about utility connections and reliability (electricity, water)
   • Inquire about security features and neighborhood safety
   • Check cellular reception and internet availability
   • Note proximity to amenities, major roads, and essential services
4. Consider using a property consultant who can:
   • Pre-screen properties before your arrival
   • Arrange efficient viewing schedules
   • Provide market insights and valuation guidance
   • Continue the search process after you return home

Property Evaluation Criteria

Assess potential investments using these key criteria:

• Location Factors:
  • Proximity to major roads and transportation hubs
  • Walking distance to amenities (shops, schools, healthcare)
  • Neighborhood stability and development trajectory
  • Security situation in the immediate area
  • Flood risk and environmental considerations
  • Proximity to employment centers and commercial districts
• Building Quality:
  • Age and condition of property
  • Construction quality and materials used
  • Roof condition (particularly important in tropical climate)
  • Water and electrical systems functionality
  • Security features (walls, gates, alarm systems)
  • Potential maintenance or renovation requirements
• Rental Potential:
  • Rental yield compared to area average
  • Tenant demographics in the area (expatriates, professionals, students)
  • Void periods typical for similar properties
  • Potential for value-add improvements
  • USD rental possibilities (increasingly common for quality properties)
  • Long-term lease potential with corporate or diplomatic tenants
• Financial Considerations:
  • Price per square meter compared to area average
  • Municipal rates and service charges
  • Utility costs and reliability (backup systems may be needed)
  • Insurance costs and coverage availability
  • Potential capital appreciation based on area development
  • Exit strategy considerations and marketability

Expert Tip: In Zimbabwe, property infrastructure features that might be taken for granted in North America can significantly impact value and rental potential. Properties with reliable water supplies (borehole/well), backup power systems (solar/generator), and robust security features command premium prices and attract quality tenants. These features can add 20-30% to both purchase price and rental income but are often worth the investment given utility supply challenges in many areas. When evaluating properties, factor in the cost of adding these amenities if they aren’t already present.

Legal Due Diligence

• ✓
  Title Verification: Confirm ownership through Deeds Registry searches and historical title review
• ✓
  Property Survey: Verify boundaries and confirm registered plot size
• ✓
  Local Authority Searches: Check for planning permissions, zoning compliance, outstanding notices
• ✓
  Rates Clearance Certificate: Confirm no outstanding municipal debts or property taxes
• ✓
  Utility Account Verification: Check status of water, electricity, and other service accounts
• ✓
  Cession Rights: Verify no restrictions on property transfer to foreign nationals
• ✓
  Encumbrance Search: Identify any mortgages, liens, or encumbrances on the property
• ✓
  Investment Approval: Confirm eligibility for ZIDA approval if required

Physical Due Diligence

• ✓
  Structural Inspection: Commission comprehensive building inspection by qualified surveyor
• ✓
  Water Systems Assessment: Evaluate water supply reliability, storage capacity, and quality
• ✓
  Electrical Systems Review: Assess condition, capacity, and safety of electrical installations
• ✓
  Roof and Drainage Inspection: Critical in areas with seasonal heavy rainfall
• ✓
  Security Features Assessment: Evaluate perimeter security, alarm systems, and access control
• ✓
  Environmental Assessment: Check for termite damage, flooding risk, and soil stability
• ✓
  Renovation Assessment: Obtain estimates for necessary improvements from local contractors

Financial Due Diligence

• ✓
  Comparative Market Analysis: Verify price aligns with recent comparable sales
• ✓
  Rental Market Research: Confirm realistic rental expectations through local agents
• ✓
  Tax Calculation: Determine transfer taxes, capital gains liability, and annual property taxes
• ✓
  Running Cost Assessment: Calculate all ownership expenses (insurance, security, utilities, maintenance)
• ✓
  Currency Risk Analysis: Evaluate impact of potential exchange rate fluctuations on returns
• ✓
  ROI Calculation: Develop detailed cash flow projections and return analysis

Expert Tip: Title verification is particularly critical in Zimbabwe due to historical changes in land policy and documentation systems. Always engage experienced legal professionals for comprehensive title searches going back at least 20 years. Unlike in North America, Zimbabwe uses a Deeds Registry system rather than title insurance, making historical verification essential. Many properties may have legacy issues that aren’t immediately apparent. Invest in the most comprehensive title search available and consider obtaining legal opinions on title validity from multiple sources for high-value purchases.

Offer and Negotiation

1. Make an Offer: Typically done in writing through an estate agent or attorney
2. Negotiation: Back-and-forth on price, payment terms, and included fixtures
3. Agreement in Principle: Verbal or written agreement on key terms
4. Investment Approval: Foreign investors may need ZIDA approval before proceeding

The Zimbabwean property market often has significant negotiation room compared to North American markets. Initial asking prices may be 10-20% above realistic selling prices, particularly for higher-end properties. Cash offers and shorter completion timeframes typically command stronger negotiating positions. Consider including contingencies for title verification and property condition assessments.

Conveyancing Process

1. Instruct Legal Representation: Appoint a Zimbabwean conveyancing attorney to handle the transaction
2. Draft Agreement of Sale:
   • Comprehensive contract detailing all aspects of the transaction
   • Include payment terms, completion dates, warranties
   • Specify due diligence periods and conditions
3. Payment of Deposit:
   • Typically 10-20% held in attorney’s trust account
   • Non-refundable after due diligence period unless seller defaults
4. Due Diligence Period:
   • Complete legal and physical property inspections
   • Obtain necessary clearance certificates
   • Secure financing if applicable
5. Capital Gains Tax Clearance:
   • Seller obtains CGT clearance certificate from tax authority
   • Required before property transfer can proceed
6. Transfer Documents Preparation:
   • Conveyancing attorney prepares deed of transfer
   • Payment of transfer duty and stamp duty
   • Submission of documents to Deeds Registry
7. Registration and Transfer:
   • Registration of transfer at Deeds Registry
   • Final payment to seller upon confirmation of transfer
   • Handover of property and documentation

The timeframe from offer acceptance to completion typically ranges from 1-3 months for a straightforward transaction, though it can be longer if there are title complications or regulatory approvals required. Foreign buyers should factor in additional time for investment approvals and enhanced due diligence processes.

Transaction Costs

Budget for these typical transaction expenses:

• Transfer Duty:
  • Graduated scale from 1-5% based on purchase price
  • Higher rates may apply for non-residents in some circumstances
  • Special Economic Zones may offer reduced rates or exemptions
• Stamp Duty: 1% of property value
• Legal Fees: 3-5% for conveyancing attorney
• Agent’s Commission: 5-7% (typically paid by seller but may influence price)
• Capital Gains Withholding Tax: 5% withholding on purchase price (credited against seller’s liability)
• Property Valuation Fee: $300-800 depending on property complexity
• Property Inspection Fee: $300-1,000 for comprehensive inspection
• Registration Fees: Variable based on property value

Total transaction costs for foreign investors typically range from 8-15% of the purchase price, with legal fees and duties representing the largest components. These costs should be factored into your overall investment calculations. Cash reserves for potential property improvements are also recommended, as immediate renovations or security upgrades are often necessary.

Expert Tip: For foreign buyers unable to be present throughout the transaction process, a properly structured Power of Attorney is essential. This should be notarized and apostilled in your home country, then registered with a Notary Public in Zimbabwe. Unlike in North America, the conveyancing process in Zimbabwe requires multiple in-person appearances and document signings. Your attorney can handle these on your behalf with proper authorization, but this must be arranged well in advance of the purchase process.

Administrative Tasks

• ✓
  Property Registration: Ensure all documentation is properly registered with local authorities
• ✓
  Municipal Account Transfers: Change billing information for rates, water, and other services
• ✓
  Utility Connections: Transfer or establish electricity, water, and other service accounts
• ✓
  Property Insurance: Arrange comprehensive coverage including security risks
• ✓
  Security Service: Set up monitoring and response services if applicable
• ✓
  Property Management Arrangements: Establish relationship with property managers
• ✓
  Investment Registration: Complete any post-acquisition filings with ZIDA

Regulatory Compliance

Rental properties in Zimbabwe must comply with various regulations:

• Rental Registration:
  • Registration with local housing department or municipality
  • Annual returns and compliance reporting
  • Adherence to local rent control regulations if applicable
• Building Safety Standards:
  • Compliance with national building codes
  • Fire safety equipment and emergency exits
  • Regular electrical system inspections
• Property Taxes:
  • Payment of annual property rates to local municipality
  • Special assessments and improvement levies
  • Penalties for late payments can be significant
• Immigration and Investment Reporting:
  • Annual confirmation of foreign investment status
  • Reporting to Reserve Bank for income repatriation
  • Revenue authority reporting requirements
• Tenancy Laws:
  • Written lease agreements required for all rentals
  • Rent control provisions in some areas
  • Tenant deposit protection measures

Non-compliance with these regulations can result in fines, property use restrictions, or difficulties when eventually selling the property. Professional property management companies can ensure all regulatory requirements are met, which is particularly valuable for overseas investors.

Record Keeping

Maintain comprehensive records for tax and legal purposes:

• Property Documents:
  • Purchase agreement and transfer documentation
  • Title deeds and property surveys
  • Investment approvals and permits
  • Building plans and modification approvals
  • Insurance policies and claims history
• Financial Records:
  • All property-related expenses with receipts
  • Rental income documentation (preferably USD-denominated)
  • Utility payments and municipal rates
  • Maintenance and repair expenditures
  • Currency exchange transactions
• Tax Documentation:
  • Annual tax returns (Zimbabwe and home country)
  • Property tax assessments and payments
  • Capital improvements for future capital gains calculations
  • Certificates of tax clearance for funds transfers
• Tenant Information:
  • Lease agreements and renewals
  • Tenant identification and verification records
  • Security deposit receipts and accounting
  • Correspondence regarding maintenance requests
  • Inspection reports and property condition documentation

Zimbabwe’s tax authorities require records to be kept for at least 6 years. Because of the multi-currency environment, maintaining clear documentation of all transactions with currency specifications is particularly important. Digital record-keeping with secure cloud backup is strongly recommended, with key documents also stored in physical format in your home country.

Expert Tip: Consider appointing a local fiscal representative to manage ongoing compliance requirements. This person or firm can receive official correspondence, handle routine regulatory filings, and ensure timely payment of recurring expenses. Many accounting firms in Zimbabwe offer this service specifically for foreign property owners. Having a designated local representative can prevent issues from escalating due to delayed responses and can facilitate smoother interactions with government authorities that may not be accustomed to dealing with overseas owners.

Zimbabwe Tax Obligations

• Transfer Duty:
  • Graduated scale from 1-5% based on property value
  • Payable at time of property transfer
  • Exemptions available in Special Economic Zones
  • Typically calculated on purchase price or valuation (whichever is higher)
• Capital Gains Tax:
  • 20% on capital gains for non-residents
  • Inflation adjustment provisions available for long-term holdings
  • 5% withholding tax on gross selling price (credited against final liability)
  • Principal residence exemptions do not apply to non-residents
• Income Tax on Rental Income:
  • Flat rate of 24% for non-resident individuals
  • Tiered corporate rate system for company ownership structures
  • Allowable deductions for mortgage interest, repairs, management fees
  • Quarterly tax installments may be required for significant rental income
• Withholding Tax on Dividends:
  • 10-15% on dividends paid to non-residents from property-holding companies
  • Rate may be reduced under Double Taxation Agreements
  • Remitted directly to Zimbabwe Revenue Authority by the company
• Property Tax/Rates:
  • Annual municipal rates based on property valuation
  • Varies by location and property type
  • Usually 0.5-2% of assessed property value annually
  • Billed quarterly in most municipalities
• Value Added Tax (VAT):
  • 15% on purchase of new commercial properties from developers
  • Exempt for residential properties
  • Applicable to some property management and agency services

Home Country Tax Obligations

Zimbabwe has limited double taxation agreements with major countries. The United States does not currently have a comprehensive tax treaty with Zimbabwe, while Canada has a more limited agreement. This makes careful tax planning essential to avoid double taxation. Professional advice from tax experts familiar with both jurisdictions is strongly recommended.

Tax Planning Strategies

• Entity Structure: Evaluate whether personal ownership, Zimbabwean company, or offshore structures optimize tax position
• Expense Documentation: Maintain meticulous records of all deductible expenses with supporting receipts
• Revenue Recognition: Consider timing of income recognition for both Zimbabwe and home country taxation
• Capital Improvements: Document all capital expenditures which may reduce future capital gains tax
• Repatriation Planning: Structure rental income flows to minimize currency conversion and international transfer costs
• Special Economic Zones: Explore tax incentives available in designated development zones
• Timing of Disposals: Consider tax year timing for property sales to optimize tax position
• Debt Structuring: Evaluate tax efficiency of different financing approaches

Tax rules change frequently in Zimbabwe as economic reforms continue. Regular consultations with Zimbabwe and home country tax professionals are essential to ensure continued compliance and optimal structuring. Particular attention should be paid to currency regulations that may impact income repatriation and the tax treatment of gains and losses resulting from currency fluctuations.

Expert Tip: Consider using a fiscal year accounting period aligned with Zimbabwe’s tax year (January-December) for any Zimbabwean companies or investment vehicles. This simplifies compliance and reporting by avoiding the need to reconcile different fiscal periods. For rental income, structuring leases with USD-denominated payments wherever possible can simplify tax calculations and reduce currency fluctuation impacts. Many premium properties now use USD rental rates as standard practice, providing both tax simplification and currency stability benefits.

Selecting a Property Manager

Evaluate potential property managers using these criteria:

• Experience with Foreign Investors:
  • Understanding of international client needs
  • Transparent reporting systems
  • Experience with USD-denominated transactions
• Professional Accreditations:
  • Membership in Estate Agents Council of Zimbabwe
  • Professional indemnity insurance
  • Verifiable business registration
• Market Knowledge:
  • Specialization in your property type/location
  • Established presence in the target market
  • Network of reliable service providers
• Client Communication:
  • Regular reporting systems
  • International payment options
  • Digital documentation and accessibility
• Maintenance Network:
  • Established contractor relationships
  • Emergency response capabilities
  • Preventative maintenance programs
• Security Management:
  • Relationships with security companies
  • Experience managing alarm systems
  • Regular property inspections
• Tenant Quality:
  • Rigorous vetting procedures
  • Corporate and diplomatic tenant connections
  • Low historical vacancy rates

Management Agreement Essentials

Ensure your property management contract includes these key elements:

• Scope of Services: Detailed description of exactly what is included and excluded
• Fee Structure: Clear explanation of all management fees, commissions, and additional charges
• Contract Term: Duration of agreement and termination provisions
• Reporting Schedule: Frequency and format of financial and property condition reports
• Maintenance Authority: Spending limits for repairs without prior approval
• Tenant Selection Criteria: Parameters for approving potential tenants
• Rent Collection Procedures: Methods, timing, banking arrangements
• Currency Specifications: Handling of different currencies for income and expenses
• Insurance Requirements: Coverage expectations and liability boundaries
• Regulatory Compliance: Responsibility for permits, filings, and tax reporting
• Dispute Resolution: Process for addressing disagreements or performance issues

Request references from current clients, particularly other overseas investors, before signing with a property management company. This provides valuable insights into how they handle properties for remote owners. Consider including performance metrics with financial incentives for exceeding targets.

Expert Tip: In Zimbabwe, utility management can be particularly challenging for absentee landlords. Seek property management companies that offer dedicated utility management services, including backup systems operation, generator fuel monitoring, and water delivery coordination during shortages. The best managers maintain relationships with utility companies and can address supply issues proactively. This service typically costs an additional 1-2% of rental income but can prevent significant property damage and tenant dissatisfaction resulting from utility disruptions that might otherwise go unaddressed for extended periods.

Exit Options

Sale Process

When selling your Zimbabwe property:

1. Pre-Sale Preparation:
   • Property repairs and cosmetic improvements
   • Professional photography and marketing materials
   • Clear title and compliance documentation
   • Rates clearance certificate from municipality
2. Agent Selection:
   • Experience with international property transactions
   • Marketing strategy targeting appropriate buyer pool
   • Commission structure and marketing budget
   • Track record of successful similar sales
3. Due Diligence Preparation:
   • Compile all property documents for buyer review
   • Arrange property inspection reports
   • Prepare disclosure documentation
   • Resolve any outstanding compliance issues
4. Marketing Period:
   • Online and print advertising campaigns
   • Property showings (coordinated through local agent)
   • Virtual tours for international buyers
   • Negotiation of offers and terms
5. Sale Agreement and Transfer:
   • Attorney-drafted sale agreement
   • Deposit collection and verification
   • Capital Gains Tax clearance certificate application
   • Transfer procedures through Deeds Registry
6. Post-Sale Requirements:
   • Currency repatriation approvals if needed
   • Tax compliance in both Zimbabwe and home country
   • Investment closure notifications to authorities
   • Banking and account closure procedures

The Zimbabwe property selling process typically takes 2-6 months from listing to completion, with international sales often at the longer end of this spectrum. Working with agents and attorneys experienced in handling sales for foreign owners can significantly streamline the process.

Market Exit Timing Considerations

Several factors should influence your exit timing decision:

• Economic Cycle: Zimbabwe’s economy experiences distinct cycles; selling during economic upswings typically optimizes returns
• Currency Stability: Periods of relative currency stability or USD strength can be advantageous for foreign sellers
• Political Environment: Election cycles and policy changes can significantly impact market sentiment and foreign investor confidence
• Infrastructure Developments: Completion of major infrastructure projects near your property can create selling opportunities
• Regional Factors: Development activity in your specific neighborhood or city often creates localized selling windows
• Seasonal Considerations: The dry season (May-October) typically sees more market activity and international visitors
• Tax Implications: Timing sales to align with favorable tax positions in both Zimbabwe and home country
• Buyer Market Shifts: Emerging buyer demographics (e.g., growing middle class, international businesses) create new exit opportunities

Given Zimbabwe’s sometimes volatile economic conditions, maintaining flexibility in exit timing is advisable. Establish clear performance benchmarks and regularly evaluate your property investment against both local and global alternatives. Cultivating relationships with potential future buyers (corporations, diplomatic missions, local business leaders) throughout your ownership period can create off-market exit opportunities with minimal marketing costs.

Expert Tip: Consider offering seller financing as an exit strategy enhancement. In Zimbabwe’s limited mortgage market, providing 30-50% financing for 2-3 years can significantly expand your buyer pool, potentially resulting in 10-15% higher sale prices and faster transactions. Structure these arrangements with appropriate security including property liens, life insurance requirements for buyers, and accelerated payment clauses for default scenarios. Having a local attorney maintain an escrow arrangement for ongoing payments can provide additional security for international sellers. This approach has proven particularly effective for properties in the $100,000-300,000 range where traditional mortgage financing is most constrained.